We investigate the phased evolution and variation of the South Asian monsoon and resulting weathering intensity and physical erosion in the Himalaya–Karakoram Mountains since late Pliocene time (c. 3.4 Ma) using a comprehensive approach.

Enriched mid-ocean ridge basalts (E-MORBs) near hotspots are commonly ascribed to be products of mantle plume-ridge interaction, but the genesis of E-MORBs far from hotspots remains controversial.

Preliminary results of the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP) Expeditions 367/368/368X have confirmed the unique opening mechanism of the South China Sea differentiating from that of the Atlantic Ocean.